Buddhist Art in India: From Aniconic Symbols to Iconic Images and Rock-cut Architecture
Early Buddhism expressed the Buddha through symbols—an empty throne, footprints, Bodhi tree, wheel—avoiding human depiction. From the Kushana period, devotional needs and artistic exchange led to iconic sculptures in distinct regional styles. Alongside, stupas, chaityas, and viharas evolved in plan and carving. This note traces the shift from aniconic to iconic, profiles Gandhara/Mathura/Amaravati/Gupta idioms, and outlines key architectural forms.
Aniconic Phase (up to ~1st c. CE)
- Buddha represented by symbols: bodhi tree (enlightenment), empty throne, wheel (dharmachakra), footprints, riderless horse (Great Departure), stupa (Mahaparinirvana).
- Stupas: Sanchi, Bharhut show railing (vedika) and gateways (torana) carved with Jataka tales and folk motifs; circumambulation (pradakshina) central.
- Rock-cut chaityas/viharas: Early halls at Bhaja, Karla (chaitya arches, ribbed ceilings) with stupa at apse; viharas as monk residences with cells around a courtyard.
Iconic Phase and Regional Schools (1st–4th c. CE)
Human images of Buddha appear, shaped by local aesthetics and patrons.
- Gandhara (NW): Greco-Roman influence; wavy hair, ushnisha, toga-like drapery with deep folds, realistic anatomy; grey schist. Halo and cushion/throne motifs common; serene, introspective faces.
- Mathura (Ganga-Yamuna): Indigenous yaksha influence; robust torso, fleshy forms, subtle drapery, urna and ushnisha; red sandstone; often standing Buddha with abhaya mudra.
- Amaravati (Andhra, Satavahana/Ikshvaku): Limestone reliefs on stupas; dynamic, narrative panels of Jatakas, railings, and drum slabs; elaborate lotus medallions; early iconic and aniconic mix.
- Kushan/Mathura: Bodhisattva and Buddha icons proliferate; Mahayana devotion rises.
Gupta and Later Refinements (4th–6th c. CE)
- Sarnath style: Gupta-period Buddhas with downcast eyes, smooth transparent drapery, subtle modelling; dharmachakra mudra famous (Sarnath Buddha).
- Ajanta (Gupta–Vakataka era): Murals of Bodhisattvas (Padmapani), graceful figures, rich colours; later chaityas/viharas with ornate façades and pillars.
- Iconography: Mudras (abhaya, dhyana, bhumisparsha), ushnisha, urna, elongated ears, monastic robes; bodhisattvas with jewellery and crowns in Mahayana art.
- Patronage shift: Royal and mercantile support; monasteries as learning centres (Nalanda) with bronze casting and manuscript production.
Architectural Forms
- Stupa anatomy: Anda (dome), harmika (railing atop), chhatri/chattravali (umbrellas), medhi (drum), toranas (gateways), vedika (railing). Enlarged and renovated across dynasties (e.g., Sanchi phases; Amaravati stupa evolved).
- Chaitya halls: Barrel-vaulted with wooden/stone ribs, apsidal end with stupa; light from façade window; later examples at Ajanta (Cave 19/26) with elaborate façade; Karla has grand pillars and horseshoe arch.
- Viharas: Residential monasteries, later with shrine (Ajanta Cave 1/2); pillared halls and cells.
Spread and Hybrids
- Northwest: Gandharan art influenced Central Asia and early Chinese Buddhist imagery.
- Deccan: Ikshvaku patronage (Nagarjunakonda) produced narrative reliefs and vihara complexes.
- Post-Gupta: Pala art in Eastern India (Nalanda, Somapura/Bangladesh) with black stone Buddhas and bronzes; Vajrayana iconography grows.
Key Sites and What to Note
- Sanchi: Aniconic reliefs, toranas with Jataka tales.
- Amaravati: White limestone narrative slabs; museums in Chennai/Amaravati hold panels.
- Ajanta: Murals, later chaityas, vihara plans with sanctum.
- Ellora (Buddhist caves 1–12): Later viharas with grand pillared halls and shrine Buddha.
- Sarnath: Gupta Buddhas; Dhamek stupa marks first sermon site.
- Gandhara sites: Taxila, Takht-i-Bahi (now in Pakistan); schist Buddhas in museums globally.
Takeaway: Buddhist art in India travels from symbol to image, from plain railings to narrative reliefs, and from simple stupas to elaborate chaityas and painted viharas. Gandhara’s drapery, Mathura’s robustness, Amaravati’s narrative slabs, and Gupta elegance are the main stylistic signposts; stupas/chaityas/viharas provide the architectural frame for these evolving expressions.