Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization) - Origin, Features, Town Planning, Economy, Religion, Decline, and Archaeological Sites

Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization) - Origin, Features, Town Planning, Economy, Religion, Decline, and Archaeological Sites (Indus Valley Civilization UPSC)

1. Introduction - UPSC relevance, why this topic matters for Prelims and Mains

Subject: history-upsc-notes (Subject ID: 110) | Focus Keyword: Indus Valley Civilization UPSC

The Indus Valley Civilization (also called the Harappan Civilization) is one of the most asked topics from Ancient Indian History in UPSC because it is India's earliest known urban civilization and a key foundation for understanding early society, economy, religion, and technology in the subcontinent. Questions appear regularly in Prelims as factual matches (sites, features, artefacts, dates, rivers, town planning) and in Mains (GS1) as analytical themes (urbanism, trade networks, decline theories, continuity with later Indian culture).

Why it matters for UPSC: Harappan questions test your ability to connect archaeological evidence with historical inference. UPSC also checks whether you can avoid outdated explanations (like a single-cause "invasion theory") and instead present multi-causal decline with balanced reasoning.

Prelims Angle: Sites and their specialities (e.g., Great Bath, dockyard at Lothal, water reservoirs at Dholavira), materials used (baked bricks), crafts (beads, seals), agriculture (wheat, barley, cotton), and trade (Mesopotamia).

Mains Angle: Urban planning as a reflection of governance, standardized weights and measures as evidence of economic integration, nature of Harappan religion, and competing theories of decline (climate change, river shifts, ecological stress, de-urbanization).

2. Definition box with exam-ready definition

3. Internal links section (3-5 related topics)

[Prehistoric Age in India] | [Neolithic and Chalcolithic Cultures] | [Vedic Age: Rig Vedic and Later Vedic] | [Archaeological Sources of Ancient India] | [Mauryan Empire: Administration and Economy]

4. Discovery and Excavation History - key archaeologists, dates, sites

The Harappan Civilization came to modern attention through archaeological discoveries during British rule, although local communities had long known about ancient mounds and ruins.

Key milestones (UPSC-ready chronology)

• 1826–1834: Early references by travellers and officials to ancient ruins in Punjab and Sindh regions, but without systematic excavation.
• 1921: Excavation at Harappa (Punjab, present-day Pakistan) led by Daya Ram Sahni under the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
• 1922: Discovery and excavation at Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, present-day Pakistan) by Rakhaldas (R.D.) Banerji.
• 1924: Sir John Marshall (Director-General of ASI) formally announced the discovery of a new ancient civilization, comparable in antiquity to Egypt and Mesopotamia.
• 1930s–1940s: Extensive work by archaeologists like Ernest Mackay, Madho Sarup Vats, and later Mortimer Wheeler (who emphasized stratigraphy and refined archaeological methods in the subcontinent).
• Post-1947: After Partition, major sites like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro went to Pakistan, and India intensified excavations at sites such as Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Banawali, and Rakhigarhi.

Why UPSC asks this section

Prelims Angle: Match archaeologists with sites (Harappa—Daya Ram Sahni; Mohenjo-daro—R.D. Banerji; announcement—John Marshall). Identify famous excavators like Wheeler.

Mains Angle: Show how archaeological interpretation changes with new excavations (e.g., Rakhigarhi's scale, Dholavira's water management) and improved scientific methods (radiocarbon dating, palaeoclimate studies).

5. Geographical Extent and Phases - Early, Mature, Late Harappan

Geographical extent

The Harappan Civilization had the largest geographical spread among contemporary Bronze Age civilizations. Its cultural zone covered a vast region including:

• Core region: Indus river system and its tributaries in present-day Pakistan and north-west India.
• Eastern extent: Up to Alamgirpur (near Meerut, Uttar Pradesh) in some classifications.
• Western extent: Coastal and inland Baluchistan including sites like Sutkagendor (near the Makran coast).
• Northern extent: Up to sites like Manda (Jammu region) in some lists.
• Southern extent: Up to Daimabad (Maharashtra), indicating wide cultural interactions and spread.

Many sites also appear along the Ghaggar-Hakra system (often discussed in relation to the Saraswati debate), and in Gujarat along the Sabarmati and other regional rivers, showing ecological diversity from river plains to semi-arid zones and coastal areas.

Phases of the Harappan Civilization

For UPSC, it is useful to present Harappan development in three broad phases:

• Early Harappan (c. 3300–2600 BCE): Regional cultures and early settlements; growth of trade and craft; examples include cultural phases like Kot Diji and other pre-urban traditions.
• Mature Harappan (c. 2600–1900 BCE): Peak urban phase with major cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro; standardized bricks, seals, planned streets, drainage, and wide trade networks.
• Late Harappan (c. 1900–1300 BCE): Decline of urban centers, de-urbanization, reduced standardization, regionalization of cultures, and migration to smaller settlements.

Prelims Angle: Dates of Mature Harappan (approx. 2600–1900 BCE), and the idea of Early–Mature–Late phases.

Mains Angle: Explain urbanization as a process, not an overnight event—Early Harappan builds foundations; Late Harappan shows transformation and dispersal.

6. Salient Features of Harappan Civilization - comprehensive overview

The Harappan Civilization is identified not by a single monument but by a distinct package of cultural features found across a wide region.

Core features (high-frequency UPSC points)

• Urbanism: Large planned cities with distinct civic planning and public infrastructure.
• Town planning: Grid pattern, fortified areas, standardized street widths, and strong civic sense.
• Drainage and sanitation: Covered drains, soak pits, household bathrooms, and regular maintenance access.
• Standardization: Uniformity in brick ratio, weights, measures, and some craft forms suggests integration.
• Seals and script: Seals used for identity, trade, and administration; short inscriptions in an undeciphered script.
• Craft specialization: Bead-making, pottery, metallurgy, shell work, ivory/bone tools, and textile-related evidence.
• Trade networks: Inland and maritime trade, including links with Mesopotamia (often referred to as "Meluhha" in ancient texts).
• Bronze Age technology: Use of copper/bronze tools, specialized furnaces, and advanced craft techniques.
• No clear evidence of temples/palaces: Unlike Egypt/Mesopotamia, Harappan cities show fewer explicit signs of monumental kingship or large temples.
• Diverse ecology: Settlements adapted to river plains, coastal areas, arid zones, and island-like regions (e.g., Dholavira in Kachchh).

Prelims Angle: Identify what is typical Harappan (baked brick cities, drainage, seals) versus what is not typical (iron tools, large stone temples, long inscriptions, clear pyramids/palaces).

Mains Angle: Use features to infer governance—standardization and civic infrastructure imply organized authority, even if kings are not clearly visible.

7. Town Planning and Urban Features - grid pattern, drainage, Great Bath, citadel

Harappan town planning is considered one of the most remarkable aspects of the civilization and is a frequent UPSC favourite. Their cities show a strong focus on functionality, hygiene, and regulation.

City layout: Citadel and Lower Town

• Citadel: Usually a raised, fortified area (often on the western side in many cities) containing major public buildings and possibly administrative or ritual structures.
• Lower Town: Residential and commercial areas with houses, workshops, lanes, and markets.
• Fortification: Many sites show mud-brick or baked-brick fortifications, indicating planned defence or boundary marking.

Street planning and grid pattern

• Grid system: Streets often run north–south and east–west, cutting each other at right angles.
• Hierarchy of roads: Main streets were wider; lanes inside residential blocks were narrower.
• Town zoning: Separation of public spaces, residential quarters, and craft areas is often visible.

Drainage and sanitation (most asked in Prelims)

• Covered drains: Drains ran along streets with removable covers for cleaning.
• Household drains: Many houses had bathrooms with drains connecting to street drains.
• Soak pits: Used to manage wastewater and prevent overflow.
• Wells: Numerous wells suggest advanced water supply; Mohenjo-daro is especially known for many wells.

Great Bath and public architecture

The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is one of the most iconic structures of the Harappan Civilization.

• Structure: A large water tank with steps leading down, surrounded by rooms.
• Waterproofing: Carefully constructed with baked bricks and bitumen-like sealing material in many interpretations.
• Purpose (inference): Often linked to ritual bathing, indicating the cultural importance of purification practices.

Other urban features

• Granary/warehouse-like buildings: Large structures interpreted as storage facilities at some sites (interpretations vary, but UPSC often treats "granary" as a term used in textbooks).
• Assembly hall/large halls: Mohenjo-daro has structures sometimes interpreted as public or administrative halls.
• Dockyard and warehouse: At Lothal, civic planning includes trade-related infrastructure.
• Water management: Dholavira is famous for reservoirs, channels, and sophisticated storage of rainwater.

Prelims Angle: Great Bath—Mohenjo-daro; Dockyard—Lothal; Reservoirs and water management—Dholavira; Fire altars and ploughed field—Kalibangan.

Mains Angle: Town planning reflects an organized authority prioritizing civic life. Compare with later periods to show continuity and change in urban traditions.

8. Architecture and Building Materials - bricks, structures

Harappan architecture shows standardization and functional planning, with a strong preference for durable materials where possible.

Bricks and construction style

• Baked bricks: Common in major urban centers, especially for drains, wells, baths, and important structures.
• Sun-dried (mud) bricks: Used in some areas and often in less resource-intensive settings.
• Standard brick ratio: A commonly noted feature is the 1:2:4 proportion, showing standardization.

Types of buildings

• Residential houses: Often had courtyards, multiple rooms, bathrooms, and sometimes upper floors (inferred from staircases).
• Public buildings: Great Bath, large halls, and storage structures.
• Workshops: Bead-making and craft zones are visible at sites like Chanhudaro and Lothal.

Regional variations

• Dholavira: Notable use of stone in construction and distinctive city divisions (citadel, middle town, lower town) along with massive reservoirs.
• Coastal Gujarat sites: Adaptations for trade and maritime activity.
• Rajasthan sites: More frequent mud-brick and local adaptations due to environment.

Prelims Angle: Identify construction materials and their implication—baked bricks, standardized brick ratio, wells, drains.

Mains Angle: Explain how standardized construction suggests centralized norms, skilled labour, and strong civic administration.

9. Economy - agriculture, trade, crafts, weights and measures

The Harappan economy combined agriculture, pastoralism, craft production, and trade. Evidence comes from plant remains, animal bones, tools, storage areas, and trade goods.

Agriculture

• Main crops: Wheat and barley were major staples; also evidence of pulses and oilseeds in various regions.
• Cotton: Harappans are among the earliest known communities to cultivate and use cotton, linking to textile production.
• Regional cropping: In Gujarat and some Late Harappan contexts, other crops appear based on local ecology.
• Tools: Use of plough evidence is famously linked to Kalibangan (furrow marks interpreted as ploughed field).

Animal husbandry

• Domesticated animals: Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats; evidence of animal-based economy through bones and seals motifs.
• Oxen and carts: Bullock-cart depictions and toy carts indicate transport and agriculture support.

Craft production (specialization)

• Bead-making: Carnelian, agate, lapis lazuli, faience; major craft centers include Chanhudaro and Lothal.
• Metallurgy: Copper and bronze tools, ornaments; skilled casting seen in famous figurines.
• Pottery: Red ware pottery with black designs; distinct Harappan ceramic styles help identify phases.
• Shell and ivory work: Bangles, decorative items, tools.

Trade: internal and external

• Internal trade: Movement of raw materials (stone, metals) and finished goods across the civilization's wide geography.
• External trade: Contacts with Mesopotamia, Oman region, and Bahrain area are inferred from objects, seals, and references in ancient West Asian records to trade with "Meluhha" (often associated with the Indus region).
• Maritime trade: Coastal sites like Lothal show planning for shipping and storage.

Weights and measures

• Standardized weights: Carefully cut stone weights found at many sites, often in systematic ratios (used for trade and regulation).
• Measurement uniformity: Evidence suggests standardized measurement practices, crucial for large-scale trade and taxation-like systems.

Prelims Angle: Cotton, standardized weights, dockyard at Lothal, long-distance trade with Mesopotamia, bead-making centers.

Mains Angle: Explain economic integration: standard weights and widespread seals point to regulation and trust-building in trade.

10. Social Organization and Daily Life

Harappan society is reconstructed mainly through material remains, not through readable texts. Therefore, conclusions must be evidence-based and cautious.

Nature of society

• No clear kings or palaces: Unlike Egypt, there is no unambiguous royal tomb or palace; governance may have been collective, merchant-led, or city-administered.
• Social differentiation: Differences in house size, access to wells, and neighbourhood planning suggest some inequality.
• Urban professional groups: Craft workers, traders, administrators, and labourers likely formed specialized groups.

Household life

• Houses: Courtyard houses with multiple rooms; some had private wells and bathrooms.
• Food habits: Based on grain remains and animal bones; diet included cereals and animal products depending on region.
• Clothing and ornaments: Beads, bangles, necklaces, and other ornaments are common finds; cotton use suggests textile culture.
• Recreation: Toys, dice-like objects, figurines, and gaming pieces indicate leisure activities.

Burial practices

• Cemeteries: Harappa has well-known cemetery areas; burials include pottery and ornaments as grave goods in some cases.
• Variety: Different burial types (extended burials, fractional burials) indicate diversity in practices.

Prelims Angle: Identify what is known and what is not—Harappan political system is inferred, not textually recorded.

Mains Angle: Use "absence of evidence" carefully: lack of palaces does not mean lack of authority; civic planning itself implies governance.

11. Art, Craft, and Technology - seals, pottery, metallurgy

Harappan material culture is rich and varied, showing artistic skill combined with functional craft traditions.

Seals (very important for UPSC)

• Material: Mostly steatite; also other materials.
• Motifs: "Unicorn" figure is common; also bull, elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, and composite creatures.
• Uses: Likely used for trade, identity, and administrative marking; many seals carry short inscriptions.

Pottery

• Red ware with designs: Painted geometric and sometimes animal motifs.
• Utility and ritual: Pottery used for storage, cooking, serving, and possibly ritual contexts.

Sculpture and figurines

• Bronze "Dancing Girl" (Mohenjo-daro): A small bronze figurine famous for realistic posture, linked to advanced metal casting.
• "Priest-King" statue (Mohenjo-daro): A stone sculpture often discussed in textbooks (interpretation debated, but widely used as a reference point).
• Terracotta figurines: Common, including female figurines often connected with fertility interpretations.

Metallurgy and tools

• Metals used: Copper and bronze; gold and silver for ornaments; limited use of iron (generally not a Mature Harappan feature).
• Tools: Knives, axes, chisels, needles, fishhooks; technology suited to urban crafts and agriculture.

Technology and science

• Engineering: Drainage, wells, water management, dock-related structures.
• Craft technology: Kilns for pottery, bead-firing techniques, and sophisticated stone-cutting.

Prelims Angle: Dancing Girl—bronze; seals—steatite; unicorn motif; absence of iron as a defining Mature Harappan feature.

Mains Angle: Link art and technology to economy—craft specialization supports trade and urban life.

12. Religion and Beliefs - Mother Goddess, Pashupati seal, tree worship

Harappan religion is reconstructed from seals, figurines, and certain structures. Because the script is undeciphered, interpretations remain probable rather than certain.

Key elements often discussed

• Mother Goddess figurines: Terracotta female figurines are sometimes interpreted as fertility symbols, suggesting a focus on fertility and prosperity.
• Pashupati seal: A famous seal shows a seated figure with animals around it; some scholars link it to a proto-Shiva/Pashupati idea, though this remains debated.
• Tree worship: Depictions and motifs suggest reverence for certain trees; the peepal is often referenced in interpretations.
• Animal symbolism: Bulls, unicorn motif, and other animals appear frequently on seals and art, indicating symbolic importance.
• Fire altars: Evidence at Kalibangan and some other sites suggests ritual fire practices in certain regions or periods.

Ritual bathing and purity

The Great Bath is often linked to ritual bathing, showing that purification may have been important. This becomes a key discussion point for continuity with later Indian cultural emphasis on bathing and purity.

Prelims Angle: Mother Goddess figurines, Pashupati seal, Great Bath, fire altars at Kalibangan.

Mains Angle: Present religion cautiously: "evidence suggests" instead of absolute claims; show continuity debates without overstatement.

13. Script and Language - undeciphered, characteristics

The Harappan script remains one of the biggest puzzles of ancient history in the subcontinent.

Characteristics

• Undeciphered: No universally accepted decipherment exists.
• Short inscriptions: Most inscriptions are brief, often appearing on seals, pottery, tablets, and small objects.
• Sign count: Scholars propose several hundred distinct signs; repetition suggests structured usage.
• Direction: Many inscriptions are written right-to-left; some are boustrophedon (alternating directions) in rare cases.

Language debate

Because the script is undeciphered, the underlying language is debated (various hypotheses exist), but UPSC expects you to state the safe conclusion: language is not conclusively known.

Prelims Angle: Script is undeciphered; inscriptions are short; often right-to-left.

Mains Angle: Explain how undeciphered script limits certainty about politics, religion, and social structure, forcing reliance on archaeology.

14. Major Sites and their Specialities - table format with Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, etc.

Prelims Angle: Site-speciality matching is extremely common: Great Bath—Mohenjo-daro; Dockyard—Lothal; Water reservoirs—Dholavira; Ploughed field/fire altars—Kalibangan.

15. Decline of Indus Valley Civilization - various theories

The decline of the Harappan Civilization is best understood as a gradual process of de-urbanization rather than a single dramatic collapse. UPSC expects a multi-factor explanation and awareness that older theories have been revised.

Major theories (present as multiple causes)

• Climate change and weakening monsoon: Reduced rainfall could have affected agriculture, water supply, and urban sustainability.
• River shifts and drying channels: Changes in river courses (including the Ghaggar-Hakra system in many discussions) could have led to water stress, impacting settlements and farming.
• Floods in some regions: Repeated flooding may have damaged cities like Mohenjo-daro (often discussed, though impacts varied by site).
• Decline of long-distance trade: If West Asian trade networks changed, Harappan urban economies dependent on craft exports could have weakened.
• Ecological stress and resource pressure: Overuse of wood (for fuel and kilns), soil exhaustion, and population pressures could have contributed.
• Regionalization and migration: Late Harappan phase shows movement towards smaller settlements, more rural life, and regional cultural styles.
• Conflict/invasion theory (older view): Earlier scholars proposed invasions, but today it is generally not treated as the primary explanation; UPSC expects you to avoid single-cause invasion claims.

What the Late Harappan phase indicates

• Decline in standardization: Brick norms and weights become less uniform.
• Urban shrinkage: Large cities reduce in population or are abandoned.
• Shift in settlements: More sites appear in eastern and southern areas, suggesting migration and adaptation.

Prelims Angle: Mature phase ends around c. 1900 BCE; decline is multi-causal; avoid "only invasion" explanations.

Mains Angle: Present decline as a process: environmental change + economic shifts + social transformation = de-urbanization.

16. Harappan vs Vedic Civilization comparison (table)

UPSC Note: This comparison is a broad analytical tool. Avoid oversimplification: both societies were diverse and evolved over time.

17. Significance and Legacy

The Harappan Civilization is significant not only as "the earliest urban civilization" but also as a marker of early Indian capacities in organization, technology, and cultural practices.

Why Harappan legacy matters

• Urban tradition: Demonstrates early Indian expertise in city planning, sanitation, and civic infrastructure.
• Economic integration: Trade networks show the subcontinent's role in wider Bronze Age exchanges.
• Craft excellence: Beads, seals, pottery, and metallurgy reveal high skill levels and specialized production.
• Cultural continuity debates: Practices like bathing, ornaments (bangles), and symbolic motifs encourage discussion on continuities into later Indian traditions (present cautiously in Mains).
• Archaeological importance: It teaches UPSC aspirants how history is reconstructed from material evidence, not only from texts.

Mains-ready line: The Harappan Civilization represents a mature phase of early South Asian urbanism where standardized material culture and civic planning indicate complex governance, even in the absence of deciphered texts.

18. Quick Facts section (8-10 bullet points)

• Indus Valley Civilization UPSC: Mature Harappan peak is generally dated to c. 2600–1900 BCE.
• The civilization is called Harappan because Harappa was among the first excavated sites.
• Great Bath is the iconic public structure at Mohenjo-daro.
• Dholavira is famous for water reservoirs and unique city divisions; notable use of stone.
• Lothal is strongly linked with maritime trade and a dockyard/port-like setup.
• Harappans used standardized baked bricks and advanced covered drainage.
• Seals (often steatite) with animal motifs and short inscriptions are a key Harappan identity marker.
• The script is undeciphered, limiting certainty about politics and religion.
• Harappan economy included agriculture (wheat, barley, cotton), crafts (beads, metallurgy), and long-distance trade (Mesopotamia links).
• The decline is best explained as multi-causal de-urbanization (climate, river shifts, trade change), not a single event.

19. 3 Previous Year Questions (PYQs) with model answer points in pyq-box format

20. 6 MCQs with answer key at the end

1. Which statement best reflects a characteristic feature of the Mature Harappan phase?

   • A. Widespread use of iron tools and weapons
   • B. Planned cities with covered drainage and standardized bricks
   • C. Construction of large stone temples and pyramids
   • D. Long literary texts written on palm leaves

2. The Great Bath is associated with:

   • A. Harappa
   • B. Mohenjo-daro
   • C. Dholavira
   • D. Kalibangan

3. Which site is most strongly linked with maritime trade infrastructure such as a dockyard/port-like structure?

   • A. Lothal
   • B. Harappa
   • C. Rakhigarhi
   • D. Manda

4. Harappan seals are most commonly made of:

   • A. Iron
   • B. Steatite
   • C. Marble
   • D. Glass

5. Which of the following is the most accurate statement about the Harappan script?

   • A. It has been fully deciphered and is clearly Sanskrit-based
   • B. It consists of very long inscriptions on copper plates
   • C. It remains undeciphered and appears mainly on seals and short inscriptions
   • D. It is identical to Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts

6. Which set of factors is most appropriate to explain the decline of the Harappan Civilization?

   • A. Only a single invasion event
   • B. Multi-causal process involving climate stress, river shifts, trade changes, and de-urbanization
   • C. Sudden volcanic eruption across the entire region
   • D. Complete disappearance without any Late Harappan phase

Answer Key

• 1 — B
• 2 — B
• 3 — A
• 4 — B
• 5 — C
• 6 — B

21. Wrap-up conclusion

The Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization) stands as a landmark of early South Asian history because it demonstrates a high level of urban planning, economic integration, and technological skill during the Bronze Age. For Indus Valley Civilization UPSC preparation, focus on (1) phases and geography, (2) site-speciality mapping, (3) town planning and drainage, (4) seals and script, (5) economy and trade, and (6) decline as a multi-causal de-urbanization process. If you frame answers using archaeological evidence and cautious inference, you will be strong for both Prelims elimination and Mains analytical writing.